Animal Testing Should Not Be Banned - 923 Words

According to PETA, statistics show that each year more than ten million animals are â€Å"killed in U.S. laboratories for biology lessons, medical training, curiosity-driven experimentation, and chemical, drug, food, and cosmetics testing.† It’s no surprise that animal testing has caused a lot of controversy in the world throughout the past few years. Vegans and Omnivores tend to go head to head over the rights of animals. Some people even question if these animals should even have rights at all, while others believe that the lives of human being’s and these wildlife creatures are synonymous and go hand in hand, or they should to say the least. Not only does animal testing unethically lack mercy and morality, but it’s also not the safest and vigorous way to go. Quite a lot of people are opposed to this general disputation, and their argument will be debunked in this paper, after a thorough explanation has been presented along with their opposing positions . By no any means is animal testing ethical. These creatures are being mentally and physically abused while they’re being tested on in certain, if not all laboratories. Hamsters, mice, guinea pigs, rats, frogs, monkeys, rabbits, and birds all have either been forcefully pressured to suck in toxic fumes, have holes punctured into their skulls, or have their spinal cords in bits and pieces or even have their skin burned off. It’s quite ironic that animals are currently dying in the name of science and research, as if they wereShow MoreRelatedShould Animal Testing Be Banned?844 Words   |  3 PagesShould animal testing be banned? Nowadays, a lot of animals has been tested on a range of experiments over the world. You could be supporting animal teasing cruelty without knowing it. Have you ever check if there’s animal testing on the cosmetics before you buy it? Today, a lot of cosmetics has been testing on helpless animals and there are about 1.4 million animals die each year from animal testing ( CatalanoJ, 1994). Most of the experiments that are completed in the laboratories are very cruelRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Be Banned880 Words   |  4 Pagesdepending on animals testing. Therefore, if people talk about laboratories, they should remember animal experiments. Those animals have the right to live, according to people who dislike the idea of doing testing on animals; the other opinion, supports the idea of animal testing as the important part of the source of what has reached medicine of the results and solutions for diseases prevalent in every time and place. Each year huge numbers of animals a re sacrificed for the science all these animals, whetherRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Be Banned776 Words   |  4 PagesAnimal Testing Should be Banned  ¨Over 100 million animals are burned, crippled, poisioned and abused in US labs every year ¨ ( ¨11 Facts About Animal Testing ¨). Imagine if that was someones animal getting tortured in labs just to test things such as beauty products and perfume. Animal testing was first suggested when,  ¨Charles Darwin evolutionary theory in the mid 1850s also served to suggest that animals could serve as effective models to facilitate biological understanding in humans ¨ (Murnaghan)Read MoreAnimal Testing Should Not Be Banned940 Words   |  4 Pages1). Over 100 million animals are burned, crippled, poisoned, and abused in US labs every year. 2). 92% of experimental drugs that are safe and effective in animals fail in human clinical trials. (DoSomething â€Å"11 Facts About Animal Testing†). There are currently no laws combating the testing of cosmetics on animals, but the practice is harmful and must be ended. As evidenced by the statistics above, millions of animals are tortured and murdered in the United States every year for virtually no reasonRead MoreShould Animal Testing Be Banned?1665 Words   |  7 PagesTesting Cosmetics on Animals Companies around the world use animals to test cosmetics. Animals, such as rabbits, guinea pigs, hamsters, rats, and mice, are used to test the effects of chemicals on the eyes and skin. While animal testing is not mandatory, many companies use it. About Cosmetics Animal Testing by the Humane Society International talks about the different options companies have that do not require the cruel use and eventual death of animals. The article also talks about the overallRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Not Be Banned1572 Words   |  7 PagesAnimal Testing Every year, over two hundred million innocent animals are injured or killed in scientific experiments across the world. Of those animals, between seventeen and twenty million are used in the United States alone. It is said that an animal dies in a laboratory every three seconds (Animal Testing 101). Those in favor of animal experimentation say they are taking animals’ lives to save humans. It is not necessary to subject animals to torturous conditions or painful experiments in theRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Not Be Banned1581 Words   |  7 PagesAnimal testing is being used by different organizations all over the world to prevent specific diseases, especially cancer. Americans see animal testing having a harmful effect but it is one of the main reasons why society has most cures for some illnesses. This topic is important because people need to know what goes on during animal testing and why it is very beneficial. Animal testing needs to be used to find all cures. Some ani mals such as chimps/ monkeys have 90% of the same DNA humans haveRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Not Be Banned1721 Words   |  7 Pages † Today, more animals are being used in experiments than ever before: around 100 million in the United States alone† (3). Animal testing is now an international issue, and it is becoming a major story. Currently, animals are often used in medical testing, make-up testing, and other consumer product testing. Animals used in such product testing are often abused and suffer from serious side-effects. Animal testing can be painful for the animals, testing results are usually not even useable forRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Be Banned1364 Words   |  6 Pagesbenefit. Using animals for these experimentations usually does not come to mind. Animals are often abused, suffer, and even die during laboratory testing for the benefits of people to make sure medications, household products, newest procedures, and cosmetics are safe and effective for human use. Humans have benefited from animal testing for years while these animals suffer consequences with no positive outcomes for themselves. Even if a product or procedure is deemed successful, these animals are frequentlyRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Be Banned Essay1632 Words   |  7 Pages Animal Testing Should Be Banned Throughout the decades, animals have been used in medical research to test the safety of cosmetics including makeup, hair products, soaps, perfume, and countless of other products. Animals have also been used to test antibiotics and other medicines to eliminate any potential risks that they could cause to humans. The number of animals worldwide that are used in laboratory experiments yearly exceeds 115 million animals. Unfortunately, only a small percentage of

Reflection Of A Reflection On Academic Skills - 1046 Words

REFLECTION-ACADEMIC SKILLS When the word reflection is mentioned, the first thought is a mirror-like image of yourself. This is to define your own perception of the acceptable and poor quality within yourself. Taking action of the weaknesses and developing my skills to improve me around everyone, (Stadter, 2015). Gibbs Reflective Cycle (1988), a framework for students to resolve problems in assignments, step by step, I will reflect on my own problems, (UK Essays, 2013). My previous goal was to study in a university and now that I have accomplished that goal, my next goal is to complete the course with a strong grade. But the reality of achieving the Foundation Degree is a much harder concept than what I first thought, having†¦show more content†¦Experience-reflection-knowledge Pawar and Anscombe, (2015), has mentioned Dewey (1933) is a great example of how planning ahead is a step towards better success rather than dwelling on the past problems. Implementing Dewey s theory into my assignment, assist ing my understanding of how to support ideas with evidence such as deciding whether I have included all the information needed, the author/publisher or whether I have referenced continuously throughout the assignments. When previously writing assignments I need to consider how well it was written, learning from the mistakes, understanding the feedbacks and setting out times to do better next time (Percival 2006). While referencing is a struggle for me to apply, Kell and Vogl (2010) stated that overcoming referencing can be done by reading different books, journals, and articles of interest. Subsequently, after analysing the problem, I realised I try to be a perfectionist, causing a hindrance in producing assignments. I need to start believing in myself much more and be more inspired, as Percival, (2006) has mentioned that being too sensitive will block your progress, by doing time-bound goals and starting the assignment rather than thinking about the purpose. Percival (2006), has also said putting our energy into the solution rather than the problem will be an advantage to our mindset. Realisation of putting a pen to the paper to start, a draft can beShow MoreRelatedReflection Of A Reflection On Academic Skills1043 Words   |  5 PagesREFLECTION-ACADEMIC SKILLS When the word reflection is mentioned, the first thought is a mirror like image of yourself. This is to define your own perception of the good and bad quality within yourself. Taking action of the weaknesses and developing my skills to improve myself around everyone, (Stadter, 2015). Gibbs Reflective Cycle (1988), a framework for students to resolve problems in assignments, step by step, I will reflect on my own problems, (UK Essays, 2013). My previous goal wasRead MoreReflection on the development of academic and professional skill in year one1573 Words   |  7 Pages Reflection on the development of academic and professional skill in year one In this paper I am going to reflect on my professional and academic skills development throughout my first year at University. I began this course as a mature student hungry for education and a fresh challenge. During semester two, I found university quite hard as I am currently having family problems; as a result I had to learn to balance university life, part time job and regular trips back home (and that is Bulgaria)Read MoreReporting Studying senior social science subjects was the most influential factor which provided a1600 Words   |  7 PagesReporting Studying senior social science subjects was the most influential factor which provided a wonderful opportunity to discover my abilities and develop skills and confidence in critical thinking and systematic research processes. Especially, getting an A+ for a psychology report assignment and genuinely enjoying the process have given me a sense of competence in performing similar tasks such as planning and conducting experiments, analysing results, and evaluating research processes. AfterRead More1. Introduction. Reflective Practice Is A Key Part Of Working1646 Words   |  7 Pagespractice of experiencing situations and then reflecting on them, which is how clinicians may enhance their knowledge and skills and, thus, maintain their competence throughout their career as a practicing therapist (RCSLT, 2003). It is through this reflective practice that an SLT can progress â€Å"from novice to expert† (Tarrant, 2013; p3). Furthermore, reflective practice is a skill which itself con tinues to be developed. Reflective practice and professional development are intrinsically linked; a clinicianRead MorePRS Coursework 11224 Words   |  5 PagesMANAGEMENT BSM 160: PERSONAL AND RESEARCH SKILLS (FULL TIME) MOIRA BAILEY 1415792 CINDY OMARI WORD COUNT: 1,051 This reflective paper aims at analyzing my learning experience in the Personal and Research Skills module and how these experiences are likely to help both my post graduate study at The Robert Gordon University and my future career. During my post graduate studies at The Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, Personal and Research Skills was one of the four modules I took in theRead MoreReflective Writing1241 Words   |  5 PagesHow do I . . . Write a Reflection? Why reflective writing? Reflection offers you the opportunity to consider how your personal experiences and observations shape your thinking and your acceptance of new ideas. Professors often ask students to write reading reflections. They do this to encourage you to explore your own ideas about a text, to express your opinion rather than summarise the opinions of others. Reflective writing can help you to improve your analytical skills because it requiresRead MoreMy Nursing Philosophy : My Philosophy Of Nursing Practice1074 Words   |  5 PagesNursing philosophy My philosophy of nursing practice is being kind to others. I use my knowledge and skills to help people. I also respect patients’ preferences, values and choices even though they differ from mine. I will try to understand and show empathy to my patients through seeing them beyond their illness and provide holistic and culturally sensitive care. Nursing is not just a job that looks after the sickness, rather, it is about the humanity, about being a human for another human. As aRead MorePersonal Development and Learning Essay example897 Words   |  4 Pagesyears from now, but the process begins here in PDP 150 as students learn to apply their new reflective skills in developing of an effective portfolio. The reflective essay provides the opportunity to describe and document one’s growth as a person during this time in a student’s life, and the key to understanding the task is to emphasize the term â€Å"reflective.† In PDP 150, students learn that reflection can sometimes be confused with words such as â€Å"reaction† or â€Å"response.† Through the many reflectiveRead MoreBusiness1053 Words   |  5 Pages3028MKT STRATEGIC MARKETING SIMULATION CRITICAL REFLECTION FEEDBACK Definition Reflective learning is an understanding and a disposition that a student builds across the curriculum and co-curriculum, from making simple connections among ideas and experiences to synthesising and transferring learning to new, complex situations within and beyond the campus. Task The Critical Reflection offers students the opportunity to critically reflect on their learning experiences both in the course and acrossRead MoreReflective Reflection1266 Words   |  6 Pagescritically evaluate key academic sources linked with reflective practice, these include models by Gibbs, Kolb and Schon. One of these reflective models will be used to provide a critical analysis of my experience on the Study Skills and Employability module. Critical reflection will be included on how I felt during the module and what I have learnt from the module as well as what I would do next time if I was to repeat the module again. Reflection/ Reflective practice Reflection involves looking back

Letter from a Birmingham Jail Free Essays

In â€Å"Letter from a Birmingham Jail† Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. uses several writing techniques. We will write a custom essay sample on Letter from a Birmingham Jail or any similar topic only for you Order Now There are two that are used predominately in his famous letter. To clarify his strategy the reader has to first understand the intended audience of his letter. The document is addressed to â€Å"My Dear Fellow Clergymen. † Then to look at the letter a little deeper – it is not only the who the letter is addressed – but the position of those to who the letter is addressed. The recipients of this letter do not agree with Dr. Marti Luther King Jr’s actions. Dr. King uses the writing techniques of exposition and description in this letter to his fellow pastors. Dr. King is defending his actions to his fellow pastors. To do this he has to describe why he is doing what he is doing and then expand on these ideas and actions. The first technique I will prevail on is that of expository writing. Dr. King is communicating to concerned clergy what he firmly believes. What his ideas and dreams are for the movement. Dr. King goes beyond description in this letter. He finds words to ensure the readers understand his ideas. Although the recipients of his letter disagree with his actions Dr. King draws out again that, â€Å"Oppressed people cannot remain oppressed forever. The yearning for freedom eventually manifests itself†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (King). He digs deep within his heart to share his readers what he is feeling, his pain, his torment, his anger, his joy, his hope – and even his love. Dr. King holds nothing back in sharing his ideas and his inner most feelings. The next technique used in this letter is that of description. Dr. King goes into great detail describing what he and the movement are doing. What and why they have done 1 things that some don’t agree with. He at no time apologizes for the actions he has taken – he is merely describing what led him to take these certain actions. At one point in the letter he describes his feeling of how he came to be at the front of the civil rights movement. He goes on to describe the event that led to his leadership role. He states â€Å"When I was suddenly catapulted into the leadership of the bus protest in Montgomery, Alabama, a few years ago†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Dr. King was very effective in his technique and strategy of writing. He relates many activities the movement has been involved in. He shares some of the stories of those he has met and stood side by side with. The letter describes his dreams of a better America. He describes not only a 72 year old lady in Alabama – bet expands on why she is doing what she is doing. Because her feet are tired†¦. In thirty nine paragraphs and using less than 7,000 words (6,898) – Dr. King shares from a single jail cell in central Alabama the very essence of the American Civil Rights Movement of the 1960‘s. He describes to his readers not only what he is doing as part of that movement and why he is doing these things. More importantly – through exposition writing the reader understands exactly who the movement is for. As a reader of this letter I could see the entire movement unfold up to that point from his cell. I could also from benefit of history see where that movement was going. From a bus ride in Montgomery, to a cell in Birmingham, on to speaking in front of a National Monument and a finally a wave from a balcony in Memphis. Was he successful in his writing strategy and techniques? The lunch counter signs are gone – there are not notes at water fountains – and let’s not forget who just moved into 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue. 2 Bibliography King, M. L. Jr. (1963). University of Pennsylvania: African Studies Center. Letter from a Birmingham Jail. Retrieved February 18, 2009, from, http://www. africa. upenn. edu/Articles_Gen/Letter_Birmingham. html How to cite Letter from a Birmingham Jail, Papers

Kurt Lewin and complexity theories back to the future free essay sample

Many writers acknowledge the significance of Kurt Lewins contribution to organizational change. However, over the last 20 years, where the focus has been on rapid, transformational change, Lewins work has increasingly become seen as outmoded and irrelevant to the needs of modem organizations. It might be expected that this tendency would increase as academics and practitioners draw on the work of complexity theorists to portray organizations as complex, dynamic, non-linear self-organizing systems. Though there are some who do take this view, there are others who point to the similarities between Lewins work and that of complexity theorists. In order to examine these conflicting views, the article begins by reviewing Lewins Planned approach for change and arguing that it is a more robust approach than many of its detractors acknowledge. This is followed by a review ofthe literature on complexity theories which draws out the main implications of these for organizational change. The discussion of the two approaches which follows argues that there is common ground between the two which can fruitfully be built upon. The article concludes by arguing that if the complexity approach is the way forward for organizations, then they may have to return to Lewins work in order to implement it: very much a case of back to the future. KEY WORDS: Kurt Lewin, planned change, eomplexity theories Introduction Change is a constant feature of organizational life and the ability to manage it is seen as a core competence of successful organizations (Bumes, 2004b). However, there are significant differences in how it is perceived: is it incremental, punctuated or continuous; can it be driven from the top down or is it an emergent process? (Quinn, 1980,1982; Gersick, 1991; Wilson, 1992; Romanelli and Tushman, 1994; Greenwald, 1996; Brown and Eisenhardt, 1997; Dawson, 2003). These differences are the product of the changing organizational landscape of the last 20 years, where globalization, technological innovation and economic fluctuations have led to a desperate search for increased competitiveness through more and more radical forms of change (Cooper and Jackson, 1997; Kanter et al. Correspondence Address: Manchester School of Management, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester, M60 IQD, UK. Email: Bemard. [emailprotected] ac.uk 1469-7017 Print/1479-1811 Online/04/040309-17 Â © 2004 Taylor Franeis Ltd. DOI: 10. 1080/1469701042000303811 B. Burnes 310 1997; Peters, 1997; Beer and Nohria, 2000; Johnson and Scholes, 2002; Stacey, 2003). However, increasingly over the last decade, academics and practitioners have come to view organizations through the lens of complexity theory, and this is beginning to have a profound impact on view of how organizations should he structured and changed (Wheatley, 1992; Lewis, 1994; Bechtold, 1997; Morgan, 1997; Tetenhaum, 1998; Arndt and Bigelow, 2000; Black, 2000; MacLean, 2001; Fitzgerald, 2002a; Stacey et al., 2002). Complexity theory serves as an umbrella term for a number of theories, ideas and research programmes that are derived from different disciplines in the natural sciences (Rescher, 1996; Styhre, 2002; Stacey, 2003). To emphasize the diversity of viewpoints amongst complexity researchers, this article will follow Blacks (2000) lead and use the term complexity theories rather than theory. Complexity theories are concemed with the emergence of order in dynamic non-linear systems, such as weather systems, operating at the edge of chaos: in other words, systems which are constantly changing and where the laws of cause and effect appear not to apply (Wheatley, 1992; Beeson and Davis, 2000; Haigh, 2002). Order in such systems manifests itself in a largely unpredictable fashion, in which pattems of behaviour emerge in irregular hut similar forms through a process of self-organization, which is governed by a small number of simple order-generating rules (Tetenbaum, 1998; Black, 2000; Macintosh and MacLean, 2001). Many writers have argued that organizations are also complex systems which, to survive, need to operate at the edge of chaos and have to respond continuously to changes in their environments through just such a process of spontaneous self-organizing change (Lewis, 1994; Stickland, 1998; Macintosh and MacLean, 1999, 2001; Hayles, 2000; Macbeth, 2002; Stacey, 2003). This is a far cry from the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, where the received wisdom was that change was an incremental process (Quinn, 1980) and that the best way to manage this was through Kurt Lewins Planned approach to change (French and Bell, 1990; Cummings and Worley, 2001). Given its group-based, consensual and relatively slow nature. Planned change began to attract criticism in the 1980s from those questioning its appropriateness in an era of radical organizational change (Peters and Waterman, 1982; Wilson, 1992; Dawson, 1994; Buchanan and Storey, 1997; Hatch, 1997). The following quotation is perhaps typical of the criticisms levelled against Lewins approach to change: Lewins model was a simple one, with organizational change involving three stages; unfreezing, changing and refreezing . . . This quaintly linear and static conception-the organization as an ice cube-is so wildly inappropriate that it is difficult to see why it has not only survived but prospered. (Kanter et al. , t992: 10). Some commentators have seen the advent of complexity theories as strengthening the case against Lewin (Stacey, 1996; Styhre, 2002). Conversely, others have noted similarities between Lewins work and that of complexity theorists (Back, 1992; Tschacher and Brunner, 1995; Kippenberger, 1998a; Macintosh and MacLean, 2001; Flrod and Tippett, 2002). This article supports the latter view, arguing for the continuing relevance of Lewins work in the light of complexity theories. The article begins by revisiting Lewins Planned approach to change. 311 Kurt Lewin and complexity theories then goes on to examine complexity theories and change. The study then identifies common ground between Planned change and complexity theories. It concludes that Planned change can provide a vehicle for implementing a complexity approach to organizations. Kurt Lewin and planned change Few social scientists can have received the level of praise that has been heaped upon Kurt Lewin (French and Bell, 1990; Ash, 1992; Bargal et ai, 1992; Tobach, 1994; Dent and Goldberg, 1999; Dickens and Watkins, 1999). Indeed, his reputation was such that when Edward C. Tolman gave his memorial address for Kurt Lewin at the 1947 Convention of the American Psychological Association (quoted in Marrow, 1969: ix), he stated that: Freud the clinician and Lewin the experimentalist-these are the two men whose names will stand out before all others in the history of our psychological era. Echoing this praise some 40 years later, Edgar Schein (1988: 239) referred to him as . . . the intellectual father of contemporary theories of applied behavioural science Lewin was a humanitarian who believed that only by resolving social conflict, whether it be religious, racial, marital or industrial, could the human condition be improved (Marrow, 1969; Lewin, 1992; Tobach, 1994; Cooke, 1999). He believed that only the permeation of democratic values into all facets of society could prevent the worst extremes of social conflict that he had seen in his lifetime (Lewin, 1943b). Lewin believed that the key to resolving social conflict was to facilitate Planned change through leaming, and so enable individuals to understand and restructure their perceptions of the world around them. A unifying theme of much of his work is the view that . . . the group to which an individual belongs is the ground for his perceptions, his feelings and his actions (Allport, 1948: vii). As Bumes (2004a) has shown, Lewins Planned approach to change comprised four elements: Field Theory, Group Dynamics, Action Research and the 3-Step model of change. Though these tend, now, to be treated as separate elements of his work (Wheelan et al. , 1990; Back, 1992; Gold, 1992; Hendry, 1996), Lewin saw them as a unified whole with all of them necessary to bring about Planned change (Allport, 1948; Bargal and Bar, 1992; Kippenberger, 1998a,b; Smith, 2001). Field Theory This is an approach to understanding group behaviour by mapping out the totality and complexity of the field in which the behaviour takes place (Back, 1992). Lewin stated that: One should view the present situation—the status quo—as being maintained by certain conditions or forces (Lewin, 1943a: 172). Lewin (1947b) postulated that group behaviour is an intricate set of symbolic interactions and forces that affect group structures and individual behaviour. Therefore, individual behaviour is a function of the group environment or field as he termed it. Consequently, any changes in behaviour stem from changes, be they small or B. Bumes 312 large, in the forces within the field (Lewin, 1947a). A field is a totality of coexisting facts which are conceived of as mutually interdependent (Lewin, 1946: 240). Lewin believed that a field was in a continuous state of adaptation, which he termed quasi-stationary equilibrium (Lewin, 1943a), and that Change and constancy are relative concepts; group life is never without change, merely differences in the amount and type ofchange exist (Lewin, 1947a: 199). Group Dynamics Lewin was the first psychologist to write about group dynamics and the importance of the group in shaping the behaviour of its members (Lewin, 1939; Allport, 1948; Cartwright, 1951; Bargal et al. , 1992). Group Dynamics stresses that group behaviour, rather than that of individuals, should be the main focus of change (Bemstein, 1968; Dent and Goldberg, 1999). Lewin (1947b) maintained that it is fruitless to concentrate on changing the behaviour of individuals because the individual in isolation is constrained by group pressures to conform. Consequently, the focus of change must be at the group level and should concentrate on factors such as group norms, roles, interactions and socialization processes to create disequilibrium and change (Schein, 1988).

Walk A Mile With A Disability Essay free essay sample

, Research Paper Disability Experiment As of 5:00 p.m. on October 1 I became a hard-of-hearing ( as opposed to deaf ) deaf-and-dumb person. I achieved the hearing damage merely by have oning earplugs and became mute merely by non stating a word for the remainder of that twenty-four hours, every bit good as the undermentioned forenoon. The first find that I made was that my household ( and likely everyone else ) listens to the telecasting at a laughably loud volume. Even though both of my ear canals were blocked, I had no jobs understanding what was taking topographic point on the plans that we watched. However I did run into some problem around dinner. We ( my hereafter in-laws ) were stating the approval, but I had to maintain one oculus unfastened so I would cognize when the supplication was over. Another interesting thing was that while driving with the ear stopper in, I became more cognizant of the quivers of my truck, the tyres, and the bumps in the route. We will write a custom essay sample on Walk A Mile With A Disability Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page My tyres are non the # 8220 ; normal # 8221 ; highway tire-even though they are absolutely legal-and they generate rather a spot agitating. This shaking is uneven to me though because it isn # 8217 ; t so obvious that I notice it any other twenty-four hours, but merely when my hearing is impaired. The music in my truck besides took on a new function. Normally I use my talkers to submerge out the moaning of the tyres, but now I have discovered that they can be used as a massage. I have felt them clump against my dorsum before, but that thump absent from sound became an aggressive dorsum thumping. As for my drive experiences as a deaf-and-dumb person, everyone should seek it as a manner to get the better of their route fury. It surely stopped my nonmeaningful remarks, non to advert I felt better about myself when I got place. My biggest, yet far from profound, find in this experiment is related to talking. Since address was no option for communicating, I opted for the dry erase board as a signifier of communicating. When authorship is the lone available signifier of communicating ( I am nescient of gestural linguistic communication ) I tend to pick and take carefully what is of import plenty to compose down, every bit good as what is non. This process eliminates useless conversation such as irony, little talk, and meaningless remarks, which I have ever wanted ( I thought ) to acquire rid of anyhow. Certain, I like to cut to the pursuit every bit much as the following cat, but I have started to believe, as a consequence of my little experiment, that it is such little comments that allow us to separate between one another, and to colourise the personality. I do non cognize if the great wages of a conversation absent of B.S. is worth the monetary value of a weakened or watered down personality. Nevertheless, I am about certain now that a tongueless individual would give anything to be able to talk. I know, unhappily plenty, that it was all I could make to maintain lull for a measly eight hours. Which leads me to the decision that even though I am tempted to experience sorry for tongueless people, I likely should non since they sit back and watch all of us make saps of ourselves. A celebrated adult male one time said, # 8220 ; A closed oral cavity gathers no pes # 8221 ; . Bibliography Personal Experiment

The Rise of Mass Society

The Rise of Mass Society Introduction Just like any other period, the gilded age is associated with various changes in America and is linked with modernization of America. There were a lot of changes in the United States of America during the nineteenth century as the nation transformed from agricultural, secluded, rural, and traditional society to an industrialized, integrated, and urban knowledge society. There was the emergence of a modern industrial economy that brought about effective and efficient communication and transport networks among other benefits.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Rise of Mass Society specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Although this period is considered to have had positive effects to the American economy, the benefits were unevenly distributed and there were attractive features on the surface while people suffered underneath from aspects of corruption. Mass society entails looking at the people as one and und ifferentiated, which cannot be completely achieved. The few people with powers took advantage of the opportunity over the majority who had no powers and exploited them. Drama and theater One of the most notable incidents was the changes in the drama and theatre sectors in the United States of America. There were a lot of external influences on the American theatre before the Gilded Age but it was now possible to produce stars, writers, and quality stage performers internally with little or no foreign influences. Musical theatre that combined both music and dance in performance also emerged and the United States could now compete with others for instance, in Europe and England since they were now nearly at the same level. America received musical entertainment from France and England during the nineteenth century but towards its end, Victor Herbert from America was able to produce his own musical entertainment, for example, the Prince Ananias, the Wizard of the Nile and the Serenade after which other persons came up with other musical entertainment. There was also a lot of improvement in drama and changes in perspectives of the people towards it as people learnt to appreciate it as opposed to associating it with immorality as it was the case initially. People stopped depending on external productions like Shakespeare and created their own productions. For example, American melodrama became popular than the melodramas from England and Europe. However, there were distinctions of people on class of basis as some would not afford to pay for the dramas. All these improvements were made possible due to technological advances brought about by industrial revolution (Hughes, 2010).Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Leisure There was change in leisure perspectives. Due to growth of consumption and work, there was increased interest in leisure activities as a way of u tilizing time away from work especially in the evenings and on vacations. Sports Sports was another aspect of concern in the gilded age as many games for instance outdoor tennis, basketball, and golf emerged and expanded in the United States. A good example of an important aspect in American sport is the formation of the first American tennis court in 1874 reducing dependence on external courts and enhancing the formation and maintenance of strong clubs. US Lawn Tennis Association (USLTA) formation in 1881 was also a positive step in the tennis sport. St. Andrew golf club was established in America in 1888. Basketball originated in America unlike golf and tennis and hence everything was formulated afresh, from number of members to rules governing the game. It was initially perceived as a less serious sport but importance was attached to it as adult men and women got interested and joined in (Porter, 2010). Reference List Hughes, W. (2010). Theater during the Gilded Age. In Hoogenboo m, A, and Gary B. N, (Eds). Encyclopedia of American History: The Development of the Industrial United States, 1870 to 1899, Revised Edition (Volume VI). New York: Facts on File, Inc. Porter, D. L. (2010). Sports and Recreation in the Gilded Age. In Hoogenboom, A, and Gary B. N, (Eds). Encyclopedia of American History: The Development of the Industrial United States, 1870 to 1899, Revised Edition (Volume VI). New York: Facts on File, Inc.

An Inspector Calls by J.B. Priestley Coursework

An Inspector Calls by J.B. Priestley - Coursework Example The entire play, based on three acts, takes place on the same evening of 1912 at the Birling residence in Brumley, which is described as ‘an industrial city in the north Midlands’. The Birlings are having dinner when they are interrupted by an Inspector Goole who insinuates that they are responsible for causing the death of a young working class woman called Eva Smith. In the interim there are many instances where we get an insight into the nature and attitudes of the characters, which the playwright has so cleverly indicated as he intersperses events with anecdotes about them. Thesis Statement Priestley’s play ‘An Inspector Calls’ gives a good glimpse into the decadent values and attitudes held by British society. He underscores the differences between the erudite facade of composure they maintain while they are really at ill-ease with themselves and their place in society. In other words, they are more concerned with outward appearances, while this masks and hides many a skeleton in their closet. The differences between the social classes are clearly indicated, and the apparent superiority of the Birling household is ridiculed. Discussion The real significance of Priestley’s ‘An Inspector Calls’ is not really in the plot, but in the story that unfolds between the lines. Priestley has aimed his salvos here at upper class British society, mainly the nouveau-rich social strata like the Birlings. It appears that the Birlings have indeed come into contact with Eva at various junctures in the recent past and all of this is recollected as the play unfolds. Their attitude in dealing with Eva on these occasions in fact reflects on their own character and values as well-â€Å"†¦what happened to her then may have determined what happened to her afterwards, and what happened to her afterwards may have driven her to suicide. A chain of events† (Inspector Goole: Act One)1. The patriarch of the family, Mr. Art hur Birling is described as a ‘heavy looking, rather portentous man in his 50s’. He is the picture of the capitalist, and loves to describe himself as a ‘hard headed businessman.’ As would be expected of this character type, Birling is arrogant and self centered, while being morally blind as well. At no point in the play do we find him repentant or soul searching. He dismisses any inclination of guilt or blame in Eva’s death, although he recalls that he had dismissed her about 18 months ago for stirring up trouble at his mill. He was concerned with quelling dissent and lowering labor costs at the factory, both of which were accomplished by Eva’s dismissal. Arthur is displeased with Inspector Goole’s visit, this having materialized just when they were celebrating the engagement of his daughter Eva to Gerald Croft, the son of a business competitor. This he is overly concerned with his family’s social standing and cannot stand to se e it tarnished by Goole’s accusations. The last thing he wants is a public scandal†¦ â€Å"You'll apologize at once ... I'm a public man† (Mr. Birling: Act Two)2. Sybil Birling is Arthur’s wife and comes from a higher social status than her husband. As the head of a women’s charitable organization, she looks down upon the working class and regards the deceased Eva and her ilk as being dishonest, greedy and immoral. She also stands by her husband’s side and tries to protect the family name. On the last occasion she saw Eva, the latter had been

Literature & research review of workforce diversity in healthcare Essay

Literature & research review of workforce diversity in healthcare - Essay Example Properly diverse health care personnel help in expanding health care access for most of the underserved; and also adequately foster research in main neglected areas that are linked to the societal needs. A diversified, skilful, and enriched team of managers or policymakers are vital meeting the recurrent needs of an assorted populace. This top level management is highly relevant with consideration of the current modern world. Typically, there is highly empirical conception which denotes that the long-standing resolutions to achieving sufficient diversity in the health professions normally depend upon primary reforms. Healthcare sector is one the vital sectors in every country. Hence, proper constant improvements to the healthcare system are inevitable. The changes to the healthcare system must commence from the country’s precollege learning system to the practicing field. To enhance the occurrence of the reforms, there is an application of the affirmative action. That is; oriented tools in entire health professions schools. The affirmative actions are significant to achieving varied health care personnel that is important to the earlier or original setting. The paper looks deep into the theoretical and entailed operational process. The paper highlights on extensive literature review which divides into two sections of theoretical and empirical evaluation. It lastly provides vivid recommendation on relevant best practices that should be undertaken (Buchbinder & Shanks, 2012). The theoretical and operational perspectives outlines that Workforce diversity in healthcare emanates from the essence that United States is a country with a wealthy assortment of races and entailed ethnicities. The country is also facing influx people from other continents with varying background. Hence, the diversification of the health care remains the greatest challenge for the country. In summary, US

Quest For Vengeance And Distorted Personalities Essay

Quest For Vengeance And Distorted Personalities - Essay Example This essay examines the adverse effects vengeance has had on the central figure of Paulina in Death And The Maiden, and Claire Zachanassian in The Visit. Death And The Maiden, combining effortlessly elements of suspense, mystery and morality, intertwines them with highly interesting insights into the psychological recesses of a victim, forced to live with the open wounds of her persecution. The play, taking place in an unnamed country, is set in the times when the country has just escaped from a brutal fascist regime. Paulina lives with her husband Gerardo, who was once an activist working against the dictatorship and is now a member of a committee assigned to investigate human-rights violations. A few years back, Paulina was kidnapped and brutally raped and tortured while blindfolded, by a sadistic doctor who played Franz Schubert's quartet "Death And The Maiden." She believes that the stranger that her husband has now brought into their home is the doctor responsible for her traumatic experience. She imprisons the doctor, extracts a forced confession from him and yet, instead of killing him, lets him go in the end. The play provides the reader with ample chances to look inside the tortured soul of Paulina and understand the extent to which her personality has been distorted by her past experiences. Paulina insists fiercely that the prisoner be put on trial and adamantly refuses to hear the moderate voice of her husband, showing that she has lost all rationality and reason and is blinded by a terrible rage. By depicting this, Dorfman has shown how thirst for revenge remains dormant, hiding beneath the layers of a victim's, in this case Paulina's, personality creating an illusion of normalcy, lulling the victim's loved ones into a false sense of complacency. However, when Paulina is shown to be reliving a traumatic experience from her past, her hatred resurfaces again with such violence that it shocks. When Paulina binds the doctor to a chair, she gags him using her panties. This action of hers is highly insightful as it shows that the doctor's total degradation is her main aim and nothing else, and only the most humiliating treatment meted out to her prisoner will satisfy her. She does this because unconsciously she desires the doctor to go through the same mental and emotional torment that she went through. Seeing him helpless, physically bound and gagged, writhing in agony and even unable to feed himself, gives her a deep, perverse satisfaction. Keeping her secret activities against the fascist regime of her country and her courage during her captivity in view, we can safely to assume that Paulina is a decent human being with a high moral sense and belief in lofty ideals such as freedom and justice, but when it comes to Dr. Roberto Miranda, she remorselessly throws all those ideals to the wind and becomes a tigress, thirsty for blood. Dorfman effectively highlights the inner turmoil of Paulina's soul by juxtaposing her tormented psyche with physical proof of how much she suffers. The reader can actually feel her nerves taut with tension due to her clipped dialogues and her equally explosive diatribes. The following tirade of hers, serves as a clear indication of her suffering under a spell of hatred, as she says, "And why

The History Of The Community Mobilization Sociology Essay

The History Of The Community Mobilization Sociology Essay The term community has various meaning. We can define community is a place where people living in the particular geographical area and they shares their common values, interests and they follows a particular way of living. The term community may refer to the national community or international community. In biology a community is a group of interacting people sharing a populated environment. Apart from a geographical area a community is a group or society, helping each other. In human communities belief, resources, needs, interest and a number of other conditions may be present in common, which also affects the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness. In every society various types of communities may take place. Some categorizations are as follows:- Geographic communities: It ranges from the local neighborhood, suburb, village, town or city, region, nation or even the planet as a whole. These refer to communities of location. Communities of culture: It ranges from the local clique, sub-culture, ethnic group, religious, multicultural or pluralistic civilization, or the global community cultures of today. They may be included as communities of need or identity, such as disabled persons, or frail aged people. Communities are nested; one community can contain another-for example a geographic community may contain a number of ethnic communities. Identity is also one of the important factor to assess the type of community. For example if a group of people indicates the common identity other than location then it would be a community based on their common interest. Also a professional community can also exist in society where a group of people are with the same or related occupations. There are different things that bind people together to their different communities or that they may have in common with the other people living around them, which includes beliefs and values, language, territory, religion, culture and occupations. Community Mobilization: A strong community feeling is also evident at times of crisis and change for families, such as marriage and death. In a community people shared their we feeling with each other. As we know that proper management and utilization of resources is the best possible way for the development of the community. Therefore community mobilization is always prominent for the development and upliftment of any community. For mobilizing the community people make their plans and then do the things accordingly. They take charge, transforming, developing their community and their lives as well. Community mobilization is a process which allows people in the community to: Identify needs and promote community interests. Promote good leadership and democratic decision making. Identify specific groups for undertaking specific problems. Identify all the available resources in the community and mobilize or generate new resources. Communities can mobilize to work for changes that will fulfill the social, emotional, financial and physical needs of people. Community mobilization is a process to create awareness among people regarding the present situation of the community in order to encourage positive change in the future For community mobilization communication is one of the important tool to achieve it. Through proper and effective communication various methods of mobilizing the community can be implemented. Here we are discussing the various methods for community mobilization by given actors as per the fig 1.1. Mobilizing the community Political Parties Social Movements Individual groups Political Parties The use of social networking sites by political parties and other politically active groups has been increased. These groups have realized that using of social networking potentially increases people mobilization. The Internet has become a fast and low-cost communication tool and enables quick and easy aggregation of political information among potential voters. For instance Mr. Barack Obama successful used Twitter, Flicker, You Tube, Facebook among others to communicate and mobilize people. He also had a $2 million dollar custom campaigning and social networking site built called MyBarackobama.com. As political parties are now actively engaging with social networking sites as part of their strategies to mobilize the maximum people in the community. In the present scenario, the use of social media is really important to mobilize the people and communities for collective action. We know that today millions of people are connected in one way or another to the internet. People are easil y accessible on internet. It is another way of reaching large numbers of people to mobilize them for a group effort. Facebook, Mixit, Twitter can also be effective for the above. To generate awareness among people and to mobilize them in large number to make a community independent. Newspapers, radio stations and the TV have the authority to inform thousands more people about various campaigns for mobilizing any community. By writing a press release, a political party can highlight the facts, peoples demands, and what people want the media to talk about regarding the development and continuous empowerment of their community. Parties can also organize a press conference. So they can invite the reporters to come to a meeting where spokespeople from the community organization speak out publicly about the problem and the solution of the problems of community. All these strategies political parties can apply to mobilize the community and people as well to generate awareness among them and to provide them a platform where people can discuss issues their community problems also mobilize the resources. Apart from above, Political rallies and the use of local languages are instrumental in the mobilization of groups for social action. Social Movements Social movements are a type of group action. They are large informal groupings of individuals or organizations which focus on specific political or social issues for their development. In other words, they carry out, resist or undo a social change in the society. Social movement campaigns play a critical role in mobilizing and maintaining the submerged networks of social movement communities. We discuss the importance of such movement campaigns and their effects on movement communities, subsequent collective action, and cultural and political change. Our research contributes to an understanding of the shape of social movement communities and the connections between local and international campaigns. Community mobilization is often used by grassroots-based social movements, which includes revolutionary movements. The process usually takes the form of large public gatherings such as mass meetings, marches, parades, processions and demonstrations. Those gatherings usually are part of a protest action. These are the different ways by which a community can be mobilized and can raise voice for the demand of development of the community. In other words, community mobilization seeks to facilitate change within the community for its development. Modern Western social movements became possible through education (the wider dissemination of literature), and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th century societies. Social movements have been and continued to be closely connected with democratic political systems. Occasionally, social movements have been involved in democratizing nations, but more often they have developed after democratization. Modern movements often utilize technology and the internet to mobilize people globally. Adapting to communication trends is a common theme among successful movements. Research is beginning to explore how advocacy organizations linked to social movements use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action. It is a type of political organisation we need to think about is the social movement. A movement, by its very nature, is not something that can be easily pinned down since, as Glaser (2003) suggests, it represents a loose community of like-minded people who share a broad range of ideas and opinions. This type of definition, therefore, covers a range of behaviours, a good example of which might be something like the environmentalist movement a very broad category of people who, in a variety of ways, are concerned with protecting the physical environment. Della Porta and Diani (1999) refine this general idea by thinking about social movements in terms of Informal networks the movement as a whole is loosely structured. People come together, at various times, on the basis of: Shared beliefs and support for a general set of ideas, usually based around: Conflictual issues, especially, although not necessarily, issues of national and global significance. Part of the reason for social move ments is that issues of concern to movement adherents/members are either not being addressed by political parties or, if they are, the movements adherents are strongly opposed to the policies being proposed/ enacted. This is one reason why such movements often involve: Protest in a range of forms (such as civil disobedience, demonstrations or publicity stunts). In other words, as Schweingruber (2005) puts it, social movements involve: Continuous, large-scale, organized collective action, motivated by the desire to enact, stop, or reverse change in some area of society. Social movements are any broad social alliances of people who are connected through their shared interest in blocking or affecting social change. Although social movements do not have to be formally organized. Social movement is always an important tool to bring the change in society and as well as to mobilize the communities for their own development. By arranging people in mass meetings, parades, marches, discussions on various issues, movements for stressing the education of people, bringing the concept of democratization in light communities can mobilize through theses social movements. Social movements are always a part of society, and people may compare their options and make rational choices about which movements to follow. As long as social movements wish to be success, they must find resources (such as money, people, and plans) for how to meet their goals. Social movements are competing for a piece of finite resources, and the field is growing more crowded all the time.McCarthy and Zald (1977) conceptualize resource mobilization theory as a way to explain movement success in terms of its ability to acquire resources and mobilize individuals. For example, PETA, a social movement organization, is in competition with Greenpeace and the Animal Liberation Front (ALF), two other social movement organizations. Taken together, alo ng with all other social movement organizations working on animals rights issues, these similar organizations constitute a social movement industry. Multiple social movement industries in a society, though they may have widely different constituencies and goals, constitute a societys social movement sector. Every social movement organization (a single social movement group) within the social movement sector is competing for your attention, your time, and your resources. Individual groups It is always easy to start a fire and involve a number of people. Community members need to choose certain people whose role will be to keep the fire of community mobilization burning. In this guide these people will be called motivators. People in the community know each other very well. Take time to carefully choose honest people who are respected by others, and who can encourage others to work well together. They need to have some time and energy available, have a desire to bring change and be willing to work free of charge. Each community should select two or three motivators. The people chosen will need equipping and support in their role. Each local area has a number of different kinds of resources. People use these resources to keep alive and to cope with changing seasons, political change and cultural pressures. Helping people to understand and to value the different resources they have is very important. These are the main kinds of resources: _ Natural resources include land, trees, forests and water. _ Human resources include the skills, knowledge, understanding and labour of local people. _ Financial resources include money, access to credit and loans, credit unions and government support. _ Social resources include the culture, traditions, organizations, friends and extended family. _ Physical resources include buildings, tools, roads, water pumps and transport. _ Spiritual resources are the strength and encouragement that people gain from their faith. Local people already know more than any outsider about their community and the people living there. Many people assume they know everything about their local area, but there is always more to learn and understand before making new plans. Take plenty of time to help people in the community to tell their story together. One very effective way of doing this is to draw maps, either using clear ground with sticks, leaves and stones, or if available, large sheets of paper and pens. Encourage small groups to draw different maps to show: the natural and physical resources in the area (hills, forests, roads and rivers, for example) -where people live, noting important people and organisations -how the area looked 50 or 20 years ago (only for older people). So for mobilizing communities, individual groups can do the social mapping of the community so that the people can aware about the present problems in the community. Another helpful way to focus on key issues within the local area is to encourage people to prepare a role-play to express their concerns. As people discuss what subjects to use, they will often focus on important issues. However, they are also likely to share these in funny ways. Laughter has a way of taking the pressure out of a situation, helping people to discuss sensitive issues, sometimes for the first time. Again, encouraging people to work in small groups is another way to mobilize the communities. Having chosen their first priority for action, local people need to decide whether they have enough information to take action. For example, if education is identified as the priority, people may need more information about the problems and whether they are at primary or secondary level. The problem may be poor attendance and, if so, there is a need to find out why. Considering electing teams of local people to gather relevant information is another way to mobilize the communities. Choose people who can be trusted and who know their community well. Before sending teams out to gather information, take plenty of time to decide exactly what kind of information is needed. Apart from this, conducting role plays- street plays in the community is always a good strategy to mobilize the maximum number of people and to preparing them for a social action. By Arranging a community meeting to share all the information gathered is showing information clearly to the people. A large number of people can mobilize for the collective action after getting all the facts and problems of the community. Also, motivation plays an important role in this activity. As keep motivating the people in right direction is always worthy and will be fruitful for attaining maximum development of the community. Initial contact with the community is another way to mobilize people. Understanding community practices and traditions prior to establishing contact can help identify the appropriate approach for engaging with different groups and members of the community. It is important to focus on learning from the community, especially during the initial contact.  Taking every opportunity to meet informally with diverse members of the community (at the health post, during registration, at distribution points, in the queue for water). Also utilizing community leaders also increases the chances of reaching a cross-section of the population and not just a narrow representation. It is essential that all members of the community receive word about mobilization and how they can be involved.  Outreaching to those who are isolated, vulnerable or considered. If they cannot personally attend a meeting, it is important that they be represented in some way. So as per the above discussion, motivating peop le, arranging meetings, initial contacting with the communities, utilizing the community leaders, conducting role-plays, street plays, community outreaching are different ways to mobilize the maximum people of community by individual groups. Also, identifying an existing committee or a community-based organization which can give individual groups access to the community and facilitate distribution of  messages. Meeting the host community and the authorities is important to reach out the goals for community development and mobilization.   Messages might only reach certain groups, such as community leaders, and not all members of the community.  Developing outreach strategies with the leaders and others to ensure that everyone is informed, including women, girls and boys, minority groups, and people with mental and physical challenges. Making sure that information is delivered in a language everyone can understand, is culturally sensitive and is correctly perceived and understood.  As always communication should be effective and strong for the mobilization. Arranging meetings at mutually convenient times. As far the mobilization concern, for development of any community individual groups should make positive rappor t building among the community with key people- like facilitator, leaders, service providers etc. and whole community as well. A good rapport building is effective strategy to mobilizing the people.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Transparency, respect and consistency are essential for building trust, confidence and collaboration between organizations and partners, including members of the community.  Also individual groups have to make ensure that after the first contact immediate follow-up action is taken or not.   Orienting the Community is another way to mobilize the people. The first step in mobilizing the community is to orient them to the process.  This can be done in a number of ways, including written communication, television, radio, or an organized meeting.  Meetings are more personal and conducive to building relationships.   They also facilitate two-way communication where questions can be answered efficiently. As groups can motivate community people for their maximum participation in every discussion as they should feel that they are the key part of it.   Also to start these meetings as soon as possible, so that trust and a positive working relationship can be built between parties. Having the meeting sponsored or hosted by a respected individual or group within the community can add credibility to its agenda.  This may happen through a church, school, tribe, or other local group.   Utilizing community leaders also increases the chances of reaching a cross-section of the population and not just a narrow representation. It is essential that all members of the community receive word about mobilization and how they can be involved.  Outreach is prominent to those who are isolated, vulnerable or considered marginal is critical. If they cannot personally attend a meeting, it is important that they be represented in some way. Individual groups should take care of these things before conducting any activity as part of the community or within the community. An only arranging meeting is not as sufficient. The goals of the meeting must be carefully considered and reflected in the agenda.  Community leaders can provide assistance presenting the information in a culturally appropriate manner. Some of the community leaders may be chosen to convey topics with which they are familiar.  During this meeting, it is important to invoke the input of the community. Identify their needs and begin to priorities how those needs will be met.   Individual groups sho uld know that this meeting will be an opportunity to develop an awareness of what the contributing organizations can provide, and also an opportunity to learn about the strengths and resources of the community. It will be important to define mutual goals and develop a plan as to how to reach these goals.  This will include organizing individuals to work together and coordinate services.   Proper organization of every resources and management is necessary to mobilize the people. Also individual groups should develop ongoing ways to communicate for mobilizing the people. Once goals have been defined and a plan has been developed, it will be important to identify ongoing ways to communicate.  Rather than having large meetings, cluster meetings of project staff, community leaders and community members working on similar tasks are more manageable and efficient.  The groups should begin team building with all team members (international  and national staff, community leaders and community members). It is vital that marginalized and vulnerable people are included in these teams.  Intervention with the community may be required for them to allow marginalized or isolated members of their community to participate in a team.   Working in small teams that include affected people as well as outside helpers.  Team leaders should meet daily for sharing of information, planning and coordination. Not all teams will be required for all emergency response projects. Some people may be a member of more than one team. Conclusion: It is to be concluded that for continuous community development mass awareness, people mobilization is very important. In our society there are different resources which can perform to mobilize the community. But one should only need to generate these resources within the community or outside the community. Maximum resource utilization and mobilization of people are key things for developing any community. Community development emphasizes participation, initiative and self-help by local communities but should be sponsored by national governments as part of a national plan.

Sophocles’ Oedipus Cycle †Antigone, as a Feminist Essay -- Antigone E

Sophocles’ Oedipus Cycle – Antigone, as a Feminist Throughout history, women have always stood in the shadows of men. In many cultures, the role of women has always been to be seen and not heard. As one of the first feminists in world literature, the character Antigone, of Sophocles’ Oedipus Cycle, displays fine characteristics of a great female leader in order to stand up against male dominance for her religious, political, and personal beliefs. When the king denies her brother, Polynices, proper burial, Antigone goes against state law by burying him herself in order to protect heavenly decree and maintain justice. In doing this, she steps out of her place as a woman in a male dominated society. In order to characterize Antigone as a feminist, it is important to study Antigone’s early childhood, which displays the origins of the characteristics found in her that make her a feminist. In Oedipus of Colonus, Sophocles illustrates these qualities that Antigone possesses. During the first twenty years of her life, Antigone spends her time secluded from society with her blind, exiled father, Oedipus. Sophocles sums up her childhood in the following soliloquy by Oedipus: "Since her childhood ended and her body gained its power, has wandered ever with me, an old man’s governess; often in the wild forest without shoes, and hungry, beaten by many rains tired by the sun; yet she rejected the sweet life of home so that her father should have sustenance" (Fitts 104). Because she is secluded, Antigone never has to take her place in society as a woman. Without a female role model to show her how a woman is supposed to act, there is no one to raise her as a woman. She spends her days taking care of her blind father and leading him. Sh... ...Creon, when she kills herself causing Creon to lose. Creon at this point has caved in by deciding to bury Polynices and free Antigone, but it is too late. She dies an honorable death for future feminists. Since Sophocles wrote Antigone, there have been thousands of literary works about feminists and their movement to let their voices be heard over men. Through her strong will and bravery, Antigone made her political, religious, and personal beliefs seen. She died in order to win against men even when no one else would stand up to male dominance. For these reasons, Antigone is a prime example of a great feminist in world literature. Works Cited Fitts, Dudley and Robert Fitzgerald. The Oedipus Cycle. Trans. Sophocles. Florida: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1977. Sophocles. â€Å"Antigone.† Literature and the Writing Process 5th ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 1999.

Off Job and on Job Analysis Essay

Introduction of Topic The subject study is aimed to investigate an issue i. e. â€Å"Comparative Analysis of on-job & off-job training effects on employee performance† for this I have select to method of training off job training and two moderate variables environment and trainers which control on employee performance. On job training and off job training variable are conducted as comparative variable while other variable conducted as moderate variables. In general the organizations are using performance appraisals in order to appraise their employees and to assess their annual performance. Performance Appraisals have become a management craze over the past decade whereby every organization seems to think that by faithfully adhering to this practice, people within the organization will grow and develop in the company image. Nothing could be further from reality. Experience has proved to me that since those who are carrying out the assessment are usually poorly trained, poorly prepared and with an ‘ I am your boss so I must be more effective than you’ attitude. The result is often than not highly subjective and of very little value to either the organization or to assess. Every human resource manager knows that through training they can improve the skills or performance of employees or work force. But I want to clear which training method is most beneficial for work force. So that human resource manger would provide that training method which is most suitable for improve the performance of employees. For this purpose I conduct my research and comparative analysis that which training method is efficient and which factor influence more on performance of an employee. Problem Statement: Comparative Analysis of on-job & off-job training effects on employee performance Objective Statement: From side to side training can get better the skills or achievement of employees. My objective of conduct a comparative research is to find out efficient method of training to enhance or improve the skill of employee. Introduction to Variables: Dependent variable: Performance of Employee Independent Variables: On job training, Off job training Moderate Variables: Environment, Trainers Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE. Training on the job has become a major source of skill buildup for workers in the last two decades due to the rapid pace of technological change. Studies by Bishop (1994) and Bartle and Lichtenburg (1987), among others, establish that a well-trained workforce provides returns to employers in the form of higher productivity and better flexibility to technological change. Hence, there is a strong incentive for employers to sponsor training for their workforce. However, employers also need to think with the possibility that workers may quit before employers can fully realize the benefits of the training that was provided. For nearly three decades since Becker (1964) classified training as general training (training that builds skills transferable to other firms) or specific training (training that builds firm-specific skills), researchers have assumed that employers would be more willing to sponsor specific training as opposite to general training that could be used elsewhere. However, many recent experimental studies have failed to provide any evidence for this idea. Instead, experimental research has consistently found that most employer-sponsored training does, in fact, provide employees with skills that are transferable to other employers (i.e. , that most employer-sponsored training should be classified as general training). Studies by Barron, Berger and Black (1999), Lowenstein and Splatter (1999), Booth and Bryan (2002) find, that most or all the training that is sponsored by employers result in workers acquiring general skills that can be used at other firms. Such recent findings have sparked a changed interest in the following question: do workers who acquire transferable skills from employer-sponsored training continue working in the same job or do they seek better returns for their newly acquired skills from other  employers? While this question has been explored in many recent studies, most of this research (possibly due to the nature of the survey data available) has focused on younger workers or a cross-section of workers. In doing this, workers who are in the middle of their careers – a subset of workers who enjoy a considerable benefit from training – have been overlooked; it is well-understood that the type of training undergone by young workers is considerably different from the re-training of mid-career workers. De Grip and Van Loo (2002) detail the various ways, in which a workers skill may degrade over the course of a career, necessitating corrective on-the-job training is often essential to maintaining worker productivity. In this context, it could be reasonably expected that the nature of training mid-career employees receive would take fundamentally different forms than training for the labor force at large. Also, workers tend to be highly mobile between jobs early in their careers; Topel and Ward (1992), for example, show that a typical worker holds seven different jobs during the first 10 years of his/her career, with the rate of job mobility then declining significantly. Hence, employers may be more willing to sponsor general training for such workers, believing that they would be more likely to experience the rewards of this training due to the decreased job mobility at this stage of the worker’s career. Effective training programmers’ require the dedicated support of top management (Motwani, Frahm et al. 1994). Such organizations provide training mapped to employee and organizational needs (Mann, 1997), and provide this at the proper time. Yet, not all companies place the same emphasis on, or show the same commitment to employee training (Roberts and McDonald, 1995; Hughey and Mussnug, 1997). Some companies work hard to recruit the best people and yet spend relatively little effort to retain them once hired (Cappelli, 2000). There is evidence to show that benefits follow to organizations that are committed to employee training (Wills, 1994). Organizations that place a high value on training give resources to the management of the training process. They devote time to ensuring that employees get the training programmers’ that is most appropriate for them given their existing IT skill sets (Eighteen, 1999). Such firms are most successful at maximizing the effectiveness of their training programs (Huang, 2001). Organizations that commit effort and finances to training programmers’ and employee development do so with the  objective of a pay-off in terms of increased skill-sets, increased motivation, increased knowledge transfer (Pate, Martin et al. , 2000), more positive psychological and organizational dynamics, as well as a measurable aggressive edge. The use of training courses future outstrips what is known of their usefulness (Foxon, 1989; Schonewille, 2001). Mann (1996) maintains that despite heavy investment in training, organizations can frequently fail to evaluate adequately the value or success of their training programmes. Organizations that devote considerable resources to training also understand the value of evaluating the training process (Motswana, Frahm et al. , 1994; Mann, 1996). Such evaluation is a key phase in any proposed training and development process (Al-Khayyat and Elgamal, 1997). While such appraisal is desirable in principle it is difficult in practice (Morris, 1984). Even those companies who do carry out evaluations often use measures later considered ineffective (Schonewille, 2001). The most common metric of evaluation is trainee perceptions . Such assessments are random, informal, and unstructured evaluations of training programmers, which tend to be post training appraisals rather than approaching the evaluation of training programmers from their design stages (James and Rolfe, 2000). Many forms of training exist ( Switzer and Kleiner, 1996; Huang, 2001). The range of training techniques has been expanded by the application of technology in its â€Å"hard† (for example through computing technology) and â€Å"soft† (for example through instructional design) (Sadler-Smith, Down et al. , 2000). In relation to IT training, many methodologies for the approach to and delivery of training can be used: forms of training include instructor console training in a classroom situation, stand-alone terminals with remote instruction, computer based training (CBT) without instructor, hypermedia training (a computer based method of non-sequential reading and writing, a technique with which chunks of information can be arranged and rearranged according to an individual’s needs, previous knowledge, and curiosities (Higginbotham-Wheat, 1992; Murray, 1998)), self-paced training using a variety of delivery methods (Compeau, 1995), distance learning (whether by videoconferencing, email, or other method). Learning networks, simulations, groupware communication, use of mentors or coaches, job rotation, management games, role playing and behavior modeling (Williams, 2001), or Internet based training. While many new training approaches based on new technology  exist, these modern training methods have been subjected to comparatively little empirical or critical study (Sadler-Smith, Down et al. , 2000). The literature suggests that that some of the most effective training techniques are not new, but are merely the application of old-fashioned common sense to the assessment of training needs (Switzer and Kleiner, 1996; Sadler-Smith, Down et al. , 2000; Smith, 2002). Sadler-Smith et al. (2000) believe that flexibility of delivery is a fundamental issue for smaller firms, to which open/distance/technology-based learning may present a workable solution; however, the modernity of some delivery methods may in itself lead to assumption of applicability and efficiency. Bostrom at all (1988) argue that the delivery method can directly influence the effectiveness of, and the benefits accrued from training. Read and Kleiner (1996) present the most commonly used training methods across non-industry specific U. S Companies. They found that the top ten training methods used in business, listed in order from highest to lowest use, were: videotapes, lectures, one-on-one instruction, role plays, games/simulation, case studies, slides, computer-based training, audio tapes, and films. In a survey carried out by 450 respondents, Mathews et al. (2001) studied the incidence of training delivery methods across non-industry specific organizations in the U.K. , Portugal, and Finland within the context of benefits accrued. They found that training methods most commonly used tended to be traditional, with little impact evident of more HITECH methods. Traditional methods included external short courses, internal lectures and seminars, issuing of training manuals and materials to be self-taught, using training videos, short demonstrations, and the delegation of training responsibilities to training consultants. This study found that in-house participative seminars were the preferred training delivery method in the UK, whereas external short courses were the preferred method in Finland and Portugal. Impersonal methods such as training videos, and internet or Computer-based training, were viewed across the UK, Finland, and Portugal as poor methods. In contrast, highly personal methods of training such as participative courses and seminars were viewed as the most effective and highly regarded methods. From a company perspective, training and development of company employees are essential for organizational operation, and organizational development. From an employee perspective, these same factors are both vital and critical for skill development and for career advancement. Retention of employees, and the retention of valued skill sets, is important for continued business achievements (Mak and Sockel, 1999). The successful retention of employees leads to knowledge conservation within the organization (Cappelli, 2000). Employee turnover may lead to a loss of human resources weakening competitive positions. At a company level, mechanisms that allow for and promote knowledge transfer amongst employees can help minimize the effect of the loss of skilled staff to other companies (Cappelli, 2000). Training employees leads to increased employee satisfaction, facilitates the updating of skills, leads to an increased sense of belonging and benefit, increased employee commitment to the organization (Bushardt, Fretwell et al. , 1994), and strengthens the organization’s competitiveness (Hughey and Mussnug, 1997; Burden and Proctor, 2000). Job-related training increases an employee’s ability to perform job-related tasks. Job satisfaction is an important motivator for employee performance and is negatively related to turnover (Mak and Sockel, 1999). Company commitment to the training needs of its employees positively influences employee satisfaction, leading to an increase in employee motivation and an increase in retention (Mak and Sockel, 1999; Ranft and Lord, 2000). Such commitment culminates in employee exposure to quality job-related training, leading to better employee morale, an increased sense of employee achievement and accomplishment (Elizur, 1996), and ultimately to an increase in organizational competitiveness. Whilst company commitment to training for its employees positively affects retention and leads to desirable outputs, there are many different categories and types of training (Switzer and Kleiner, 1996; Huang, 2001; Mathews, Ueno et al. , 2001). To have positive results, organizational commitment to training must tie closely to appropriate effective training methods and training delivery mechanisms. In terms of training methodologies, what may be appropriate for one company (or employee) may not be for another. This paper describes a descriptive study, which assesses the impact of training on employee retention, and examines the relationship between organizational commitment to training and benefits accrued. Results of the study demonstrate that organizational attitudes and provision for training relate positively to employee expectations and requirements. Findings indicate that well-engineered training initiatives lead to increased organizational strength, job-related employee competencies, and job satisfaction. The study finds that training helps in retaining knowledge within the organization, but may not help in retaining employees. The main method of training delivery is by instructor-led formal sessions, followed by self-training and workshops. Findings show that more modern methods such as web-based and computer based training are not pervasive. Almost one third of respondents believe that training received has not helped to reduce job-related stress. More than one quarter of respondents indicate that their organization does not structure training based on employee feedback on requirements. There are many cases where the training needs of employees have not been sufficiently addressed and cases where organizations have not evaluated the quality or effectiveness of training programmers, making return on investment hard to measure. To succeed, an organization must create an environment that not only attracts people to join and give their best every day, but one that also strives to retain existing staff. The retention of talented experienced, productive and knowledgeable employees can be a source of competitive advantage for companies (King, 1997; Cheng and Brown, 1998; Roepke, Agarwal et al. , 2000). The maintenance of employees provides staff stability, which aids organizational knowledge retention (Cappelli, 2000), offers the opportunity to raise quality standards through continuous improvement practices (Motwani, Frahm et al. , 1994) and facilitates the achievement of more reliable customer care (Rowley and Purcell, 2001). It is important for employers to identify and to understand their employees’ viewpoints on what the employees consider to be the most important aspects of their jobs, if employees are to be more content (Ventakesh, 1999; Mulder, 2001). While staff retention in general is important, the retention of IT employees is vital for business success (Mak and Sockel, 1999; MacDonald, Gabriel et al. , 2000). understanding IT leaders recognize that the greatest impediments to success are often related to people rather than to information, technology, and systems (Roepke, Agarwal et al. , 2000). Considering the high costs associated with replacing IT staff and their experience, it makes sense for companies to invest in mechanisms designed to keep IT staff longer (Mak and Sockel, 1999; Moore, 2000). One such staff retention mechanism is the use of employee training programmes for existing members of staff (Mulder, 2001). The use of such programmes in recent times by employers may have more to do with securing employee commitment in uncertain times than about transforming skill levels (Hallier and Butts, 1999). As such, for some organizations the key objective of training is to increase employee commitment to the organization and to create a culture that underlines the value of long-term employment. Mak and Sockel (1999) found that most employees consider career development a priority motivational tool; and once motivated, they are more likely to be devoted to their job and the company’s retention rate should improve. As such, management commitment to the development of the employee can significantly affect retention, even in situations where economic incentives such as incremental salary increases do not (Ranft and Lord, 2000). Specific training initiatives have specific goals. These include the improvement of employee job performance, employee development (Burden and Proctor, 2000), the development of skills, knowledge, and attitudes (Al-Khayyat and Elgamal, 1997), and a means of achieving a competitive edge (Hughey and Mussnug, 1997; Hallier and Butts, 2000). Given the fast obsolescence of IT specific skills there is a repeated need to provide opportunities for employees to update their technical skill sets. The failure to provide such training increase the chance of failure and such companies may pay more in the long run (Auer, 1995). Organizations must respond to demands for change while at the same time realizing that advances in technology and knowledge are rendering many traditional employee skills obsolete, while simultaneously developing needs for new ones (Read and Kleiner, 1996). It is this continuous risk of knowledge obsolescence that makes training and retraining necessary, not only for individual growth but also for organizational growth (Read and Kleiner, 1996). Within the IT sector, training can be considered to encompass organized, structured, formal events and sessions offered to IT employees as a company initiative. This paper does not consider on-the-job daily experiences to be classed as formal training, although such experiences can aid the development of skills related to job functions (Sadler-Smith, Down et al. , 2000; Smallbone, Supri et al. , 2000). The beginning of the modern concern about skills and economic competitiveness in the United States came perhaps with the government report, A Nation at Risk (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983), which documented the poor academic performance of U. S. students compared to those of major competitor nations. Studies such as Baumol, Blackman, and Wolff (1989) focused attention on the long-run and comparative performance of the U. S. economy. Piore and Sabel (1984), Cohen and Zysman (1987), and others drew attention to the importance of production work to an economy and to the fact that work organization and employee skills influenced the competitiveness of manufacturing firms and their ability to adapt to changing markets. Dertouzos, Lester, Solow, and the Industrial Productivity (1989) developed these views into an argument about declining U. S. competitiveness that became almost a standard for future studies. The work organization and management structures of U. S. firms rely too much on outdated scientific management approaches. They are hierarchical, based on narrow job titles and unskilled workers, and, as a result, are not as flexible in adjusting to changing markets as the competitor firms in other countries. The more flexible techniques of Japanese management in particular demand higher skills from the labor force. Other studies soon pounced on the connection between skills, productivity, and economic performance. Both America’s Choice (1990) and the Office of Technology Assessment’s report (1990) argued that higher levels of skills in the workforce were necessary in order to develop the new, more productive systems of work organization and compete successfully with other nations. With these reports as a backdrop, the Secretary of Labor’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) was established in 1990 to identify the skills that the workplace was demanding. In its various reports, the Commission has argued forcefully that new types of organizations and new arrangements for organizing work—employee empowerment, teams, and new work technologies—require new skills and a higher level of existing skills from workers. Furthermore, the skills that are required are at least in part general work skills that translate across employers and industries. Both employers and individual workers are seen as benefiting from those higher skills (SCANS, 1992). Arguments like these have in large measure been responsible for a new thrust in public policy toward raising skill levels, especially through schooling. The National Goals for Education, for example, is an effort to raise educational standards in the country at least in part to improve competitiveness. The list of skills identified by SCANS as reasonably generic to the U. S. economy has been used to drive the curriculum in high schools and in training programs such as the Job Corps and those funded by the Job Training Partnership. The School-to-Work Opportunities Act, passed by Congress to establish school-to-work change programs like youth apprenticeships, is also designed to raise work-related skills. Given the speed with which these arguments have moved forward, it is indeed surprising to find so little experiential research that examines the relationship between skills, worker productivity, and economic performance. It is not obvious, in the absence of empirical evidence; those higher levels of skills will necessarily lead to better economic performance. Unless jobs require or allow workers to make use of higher skills, for example, one should not expect performance to improve when skills increase. Further, jobs that require higher levels of skills now than in the past still may not tax the skills that employees already have. In assembly jobs, for example, the initial skill requirements are so low that they could rise substantially and still be within the set that virtually all workers possess. Loewenstein and Spletzer (1999), Booth and Bryan (2002) find, that most or all the training that is sponsored by employers result in workers acquiring general skills that can be used at other firms. Such recent findings have sparked a renewed interest in the following question: do workers who acquire transferable skills from employer-sponsored training continue working in the same job or do they seek better returns for their newly acquired skills from other employers? While this question has been explored in many recent studies, most of this research (possibly due to the nature of the survey data available) has focused on younger workers or a cross-section of workers. Finally, where skills are in shortage, the relevant skills may be job-specific ones that are typically seen as being the responsibility of the employer to provide. Perhaps the main reason for the lack of research on skills and performance is the difficulty in obtaining direct measures of an employee’s skill. What are typically available are aggregate measures of the amount of education and training workers receive. These are the inputs that should produce skill and that are related to indirect measures of performance. The body of research on the economic returns on education is particularly wide and may have some relevance for these questions. Human capital research clearly finds that employees with more education earn more, suggesting that the skills they have are valued in the market. Whether education is simply a alternate or screen for some other desirable characteristic, such as resolve, is a complicating factor in the argument. The fact that the return on education appears to be rising over the past decade—rising rapidly for college graduates and falling sharply for high school dropouts— suggests that such education is increasingly valuable in the labor market (cf. Levy & Murnane, 1992). The fact that both initial and further education and training earn a higher return suggests that some of the skills associated with education are increasingly valuable (see Tuijnman, 1992, for references to research in Colombia, the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, and the United States). But for which specific skills is the return being earned? Research on the relationship between vocational course work and subsequent job performance may shed some light on this question. Vocational education programs typically provide training for specific occupations, and research on the labor market outcomes for students in these programs can help in understanding the effects of general or vocational skills on the economy. Altonji (1992) found that students who took more vocational courses earned higher wages, other things being equal. Other studies find that enrollment in vocational education programs improves participants’ labor market experience but only for those who find jobs in the field for which they received training (e. g. , Campbell, Eliot, Laughlin, & Suesy, 1987). High school students who participate in vocationally oriented programs like workstudy and co-op substitute on-the-job training for academic classes, andstudies suggest that they do not necessarily do better in the labor market than those who did not participate in such programs (Bishop, Blakemore, & Low, 1985). Hollenbeck (cited in Stern, Stone, Finkelstein, Latting, & Martinez, 1993) found that students enrolled in occupationally based technical training following high school did better in the labor market than did those who pursued a baccalaureate program. It is difficult to draw reliable conclusions from these studies about the skills needed to improve economic performance (Berryman, 1994; Stern & Tuijnman, in press). The fact that vocational skills pay off when graduates find jobs in their field of training but not otherwise may indicate, for example, that the programs help simply by giving access to a well-paying job market. In one of the few studies that attempts to sort out the source of higher wages, Grubb (1991) concludes that the return on a two-year college degree comes mainly from access to better paying occupations than are available to non-degree workers and not from obtaining higher paying jobs within the same occupation. The latter measures the extent to which education produces higher performance for the economy as a whole. The complication noted above about interpreting evidence on returns from education is that education may function as a screen for some other desirable characteristic, such as persistence, that covaries with educational attainment and drives success. One way around this problem is to examine individuals’ skills directly, as opposed to their educational attainment. Bishop’s (1991) comparison of workers’ wages with their scores on the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery is one example of this approach. (Al-Khayyat and Elgamal, 1997) He finds that higher competencies were not associated with higher starting wages. Basic academic competencies such as mathematical ability actually received a negative premium from the labor market while vocational skills such as typing speed earned a considerable premium. , (Hughey and Mussnug, 1997; Hallier and Butts, 2000). These competencies were related, however, to performance on the job as measured by the reports of supervisors. SCANS conducted its own, although indirect, test of the relationship between skills and performance by examining the current wages for a sample of jobs and the SCANS competencies associated with them (SCANS, 1992, p. 9). Not surprisingly, it was found that jobs requiring higher skills pay more. As noted above, however, it is not clear what to conclude from this. It does not indicate, for example, that workers with higher skills perform better in the same job or that the economy would be better off if skills levels rose. A second complication about interpreting evidence from the economic returns on skills as measured by wages is that such skills raise wages in two ways. The first is by providing access to higher paying occupations, and the second is by helping improve performance within occupations. The policy interest associated with the arguments above is mainly with the second relationship. While jobs in medicine, for example, require higher skills and pay individuals more, the economy as a whole cannot grow by making more and more people into doctors. Even for individuals, the gains from expanding access to higher wage occupations face the well-known fallacy of composition. If the supply of workers with the skills needed to fill a particular job rose, the wages associated with that job would fall, as would its desirability. Performance and wages can grow, however, if all workers become more productive at their current jobs. An alternative approach, therefore, is to examine the relationship between skills and job performance within one’s current job, using actual job productivity measures for the estimates. Most of these studies come from personnel psychology where they form the basis of attempts to validate selection procedures (see, e. g. , American Psychological Association, American Educational Research Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education [Joint Committee], 1985). Studies of skills that might generalize across settings concentrate mainly on academic material of the kind associated with classroom instruction. Academic skills as measured by aptitude tests can be reasonably good predictors of job performance (cf. Barrett & Depinet, 1991). The best known of these tests is the General Abilities Test Battery (GATB), which is used extensively by the employment service. The cognitive composite scale from GATB measures traditional academic skills such as verbal and numeric skill. It is related to job performance at roughly the same level as vocational skills, which correlate at levels between . 20 and . 30 (see National Research Council, 1989). Academic performance as measured by grades in school, however, is a substantially worse predictor of job performance (cf. Hunter & Hunter, 1984; Schmitt, Goodling, Noe, & Kirsch, 1984). Other studies use organizational performance measures to examine the relationship with skills. Bartel and Lichtenberg (1987) find, for example, that the rate of innovation is higher in industries that have more educated workers. Cohen and Levinthal (1990) also find that firms that have made a greater investment in learning experience greater innovations. Overall, the results surveyed above suggest that job performance—and ultimately economic performance—might be improved by raising academic skills in the workforce as a whole. 2 With respect to the policy arguments above, however, it is not clear which skills are the important ones for performance or whether new work systems are creating higher demands for skills. SCANS essentially performed a job analysis for the economy as a whole, producing a set of basic skills that are said to generalize across virtually all jobs in the workplace. While all job analyses are somewhat subjective, the SCANS skills are similar to those generated by other widely used job analyses such as the Position Analysis Questionnaire (McCormick & Jeanneret, 1988). SCANS identified two categories of these general skills: foundation skills associated with traditional academic education and interpersonal skills, and workplace competencies, which are more practical and vocational, applying skills to a workplace context.